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Untuk pengaturan t Panzhano Karaoke Player. Site Trafic. Space Iklan. Anonim says:. Unknown says:. Blogger says:. Web Toolbar by Wibiya. Radio Sakit Jiwa server luar. The first manufacturing began about , the product being liquid glucose It was not until , however, that appreciable quantities of pure, crystalline dextrose were produced.

The most recent major change in the industry was the introduction of high-fructose corn-derived sweetener HFCS which became commercial1bout This made available a high-quality sweetening material which made corn competitive with cane and sugar beets as a major source of sweetener. At the start of the present century: the Bergius process for the production of sugar b saccharification, or hydrolysis, of wood received its first industrial trial.

As far as the United States is concerned, these acid hydrolysis processes, although chemically feasible, have generally proved economically unsound, because of the abundance and low price of starch and sugar; however, they seem to be increaSingly promising. Studies with cellulase enzyme conversions to convert wood wastes to glucose to be fermented to give alcohol for use as motor fuel also appear promising. The changing pattern of nutritive sweetener deliveries is shown in Table In , about 8.

Total nutritive sweeteners, however, totaled Of this total. Abstract of the United States, nd ed. Agricultural Outlook Conference, ; Food Eng. Nutritive Sweetcner Deliverics in the United States in thousands of nwtric tons of dry substance. HFCS made inroads into all these markets except confections as a major replacement for sucrose. Both sucrose and HFCS are sold in large quantities in bulk and as syrups. Yonfood uses of sugar are very few and constitute only a small amount of the total output.

They include the use of sugar as a sucrose octaacetate, a denaturant in ethyl alcohol; as sucrose diacetate hexaisobutyrate and octabenzoate, plasticizers; as mono- and difatty acid esters for surfactants, allyl sucrose; and as a raw material for the manufacture of glycerol and mannitol.

Dextran, a polysaccharide produced from sucrose by certain bacteria, is a very effective plasma volume expander. Administered by intravenous infusion, it relieves shock and prevents ioss of body fluids after extensive burns or other wounds.

Other uses for sucrose derivatives are under investigation. No other crystalline organic product of comparable purity Alterations to conserve energy and perhaps reduce the use of some reagents are to be expected, but major process changes seem unlikely.

Sugarcane is a member of the grass family. The sources of the raw cane refined in the United States are shown in Table As many as seven successive crops, or ratoons, may be obtained from a single planting, provided conditions are favorable. In Louisiana and Florida the growing season is 6 to 9 months.

Harvesting is done by hand with machetes or bv mechanical cutters follov,:ing burning to remove the leaves. The workers cut off the stalks' close to the ground and top the cane. There can be no delay in transporting the freshly cut cane to the factory, because failure to process it within less than 2.

The production of raw cane sugar at the facton' is illustrated in Fig. The cane is first washed to remove mud and debris. The cane is chopped and shredded by crushers in preparation for remo The iuice is extracted by passing the crushed cane through a series of mills, tCich of which consists of three grooved rolls that exert heavy pn:S5ure Water and y,:eak juices rnay be added to help macerate the cane and aid in the extraction.

SJ ',Ult. The spent cane bagasse is either burned for fuel or used to manufacture paper, hardboard, or insulating materiaL The juice is screened to rf:move floating impurities ancl tre8ted with lime to coagulate part of the colloidal matter, precipitate some of the impurities, and challge the pH. Phosphoric acid may be added because juices that do not contain a small amount of phosphates do not clarify well.

Lime in slight excess over that theoretically required to precipitate all the phosphate is then added. The mixture is heated with high-pressure steam and settled in large tanks called clarifiers 'or in continuous settlers or thickeners. To recover the sugar from the settled-out muds, continuous rotary-drum vacuum filters are generally used.

The filtrate, a clarified juice of high lime content, contains about c water. The resulting thick juice goes to the first of three Single-effect vacuum pans. The mixture of syrup and crystals massecuite is dumped into a crystallizer, which is a horizontal agitated tank equipped with cooling coils. Here additional sucrose deposits on the crystals already formed, and crystallization is completed. The massecuite is then centrifuged to remove the syrup. The final liquid after reworking is known as blackstrap molasses.

The raw sugar light brown in color , containing approximately The molasses is shipped to the United States and other countries in full-tank steamers and is used as a source of carbohydrates a decreasing use for catile feed and for. The first step in refining is called affination, wherein tlw raw-sugar crystals are treated with a heavy syrup 60 to 80 Brix 8 in order to remove the film of adhering molasses.

B-rhe degree Brix is the percentage. Clean bags. In order to produce kg of refined sugar about kg residual syrup is also produced. Hydrated lime Kieselguhr Bone char in process Bone char revivified Bone char new. The resulting syrup is removed by a centrifuge, and the sugar cake is sprayed with water.

The crystals are dumped into the melter, where they are dissolved in about half their weight of hot water, part of which is sweet water from the filter presses. The syrup from the centrifugals is divided. The melted and washed raw sugar in refineries, melted means dissolved is then treated by a process known as clarificatiun or defecation.

Either mechanical or chemical processes can be used. Mechanical clarification requires the addition of diatomaceolls earth or a similar illert material; the pH is thcll acljllStcd and tIll' mixture fJltereJ in a press.

This system gives an absolutely clear solutiuII of slightly improved color and is inherently a batch process. The chemical system mcs either a frothing clariner or a carbonation system. Liquor treated for frothing, containing entrapped air hubbIes, enters the clariner at aoout 65C.

In the clarifier it ;s heated, callsinl! The clarified liquor is filtered and sent to decolorization. This process reduces the coloring matter present by The carbonation system adds carbon dioxide from scrubbed flue gas to the melted sugar, which precipitates calcium carbonate. The precipitate carries down with it over 60 percent of the coloring matter present and is removed by filtration. The clarified effluent liquor, now free of insoluble' material, still retains a large amount of dissolved impurities.

These impurities are removed by percolation through bone char. The char tanks are about 3 m in diameter and 6 m deep. From 20 to 80 char filters are req uired per 1 X kg of melt. The percolation is carried out at about 82C, and the. Experience teaches the operator when to shift the char-filter eff]uent to a lower grade of syru p.

After a certain amount of use, the char loses its decolorizing ability and must be revivified. This is done approximately every hour by first washing it free of sugar. A continuous decolorizing process is also used. The syrups from the bone-char filters are piped to the liquor gallery, where they are graded according to purity and strength: to Darker-colored liquors are treated with either bone char, synthetic bone char Synthad , activated carbon, ion-exchange resins, or some combination to form what are known as "soft brown sugars.

Careful heating ensures that the active surface is not oxidized away. Activated carbon is superior to bone char as a decolorizer because its adsorption cycle is longer, but it does not remove inorganics. Coarse carbon granules can be used in beds like bone char and revivified by roaiting at a higher temperature lOOOC. It has been reported 9 that clarity and capacity can be increased by 75 percent by such a system.

Where inorganic salts are a problem, ion exchange can be used to remove them A cation exchanger absorbs cations from solution leaving it very acid. An anion exchanger usually mixed with the cation exchanger then removes the free acid. The combination does an excellent polishing job. The major problems are fouling of the resin and handling the wash waters used during the regeneration for reuse.

Here the sugar syrup is concentrated to a'predetermined degree of"supersaturation; when it is seeded with a measured amount of fine sugar These small crystals :ue grown to a marketable size by a properly regulated rate of boiling or evaporation, as well as of agitation and syrup inflow. The rate should not be too rapid, or new crystals false grains will be formed and not have time to grow, with consequent loss through the screen of the centrifuge.

The purest syrups are reserved for liquid sugar water-white , the next purest for tablets and granulated sugar, ancl the remainder goes tu canners and bottlers, confectioners, and soft sugars brown. The pan is discharged illtu a mixer, which keeps the whole Illass from sticking together, and is then sent to centrifuges, where the crystals are separated from the syrup, washed, and dropped to the wet-sugar storage bin. The syrup is returned to the process for further recovery of sugar.

IOECT, 3d eel. Cross sectioll of vaCUUIll pall with IIlechanicalcirculatl1r The syrup is heated by passage upward through the tubes of the steam chest. The wet sllgar is dried in a granulator, which is 8. The product is callf'd incert sugor. Here, in dec l rtzilig c lumns 4 m III diameter. III-SL 'k,! III illSlIiatillg.

Wr Illallllfacture! It 2,. The fibers are refined in conical refiners to give optimum fiber size. In the head box it is diluted to about 0. The board machines, although of special desigr:, are similar to Pourdrinier machines. The stock is fed onto forming screens and led to drying felts and finally to press rolls. The sheets do not appear laminated but are felted together to give the required thickness. It is dried in a continuous sheet, at to C in a gas- or steam-heated dryer to m long.

The board is then cut and fabricated. Acoustical and structural wallboard, agricultural mulch and litter, plastic filler, furfural.

A high-quality wax has also been extracted. Cane grows well only in tropical and semitropical climates, but sugar beets grow well in the temperate zones. Only a skilled chemist can tell whether a sample of refined sugar originated from the cane or the beet. Sucrose content of both sugars is very high, over For all normal purposes, the sugars obtained are interchangeable. All plants produce some sugar, but only beets and cane are major sources.

Corn seems to be gradually diminishing the beet market in the United States. The sugar beet differs from the ordinary table beet in that it is much larger and is not red. Sugar beets are an important crop in many sections of the world because of their sugar value. Beet houses begin operation in late September and run until January or February. The tops, good for cattle feed, rnay also be removed mechanically.

This manufacturp may be divided illto the following scquenccs: The beds are rewashed, weighed, and sliced into long narrow strips called cassettes. The pIlip ICllwilling c ltains O. Chcrn Met. Eng Chern, Parker, op. In order to produce 1 t of refined sugar, kg molasses. The sludge produced by the lime is equal to 4 or , percent of the weight of the beet charged.

This is removed by thickening and filtering Of[ rotarv filters. It is then filtered Oil pressure filters. The resulting filtrak is bleached with sulfur dioxide. The precipitate of calcium sulfite is removed by press me of plate-and-frame filters. This increases the cncentratiof1 of calcillm ions again.

Some calcium pre cipitatcs out. A Sprccklf',c;' pLtllt The resulting tliick jllicc i:, grained in Val'UlIIn pam. The syrup remainillg after the several crystallizatiuns. It is also an IIllportant medium for tion, particularly for citric acid, where the high nitrogeIllUrilt'nt. Initial recover v was obtained. Hcg ;rwratioll. Lactose, or milk sugar, is made from wastE:' skim milk. Sorbitol is manufactured by hydrogenation of dextrose under pressure, using a nickel catalyst, or by reduction in an electrolytic cell.

It can be assimilated by diabetics without use of insulin, is nonfermentable. Gluconic acid, made by oxidizing glucose' by fermentation or by electrolytic oxidation, forms llseful calcium and iron salts used pharmaceutically. This material can be dried, but because the solid formed is hygroscopic, it is IlOt very desirable for JIO!

This passes the glucose solution over a bed of immobilized glucoseoxiclasc, w! Jicll uxidizes the glucose to glucosone. CH 2 0H. Starch is one' of the most common substances existing in nature and is the major basic constituent of the aver:tg ' diet. IIldustrially, its applications ls :He numerous. I I U and l:'3Ur , most paper was heavily coated.

Ages, when it was a common stiffening agent. By the English. Textile demands soon brought about the introduction of potato starch to supplement the wheat starch solely available up to this time.

In the discoveries of Kirchhoff with respect to glucose and the thinning of starches by enzymic action gave great impetus to starch manufacture through the increased fields of application created.

The use of roasted starch dextrins did not begin until , its usefulness being discovered as the result of a textile f:ire at Dublin, Ireland. It had, however, been prepareJ by LeGrange as early as The first starch produced in this country was white potato starch, made at Antrim, :-':. In , Kingsford began the production of cornstarch, which became increasingly popular until, by , it had risen to the position of the leading textile starch in the Beld.

It was in this period also that the manufacture of dextrins roasted starches began in the Lnited States. In about 6. Of this total about 98 percent was cornstarch. Imports are principally tapioca, sago, and arrowroot starches, and exports are principally cornstarch.

The largest Single use for cornstarch is as food, about 2. Industrial uses account for the remaining 75 percent. The paper industry utilizes cornstarch as a Bller and a sizing material. Textile, laundry, foundry, air flotation, oil-well drilling, and adhesives use much starch Chap.

White potato starch can be employed for almost everyone of the uses outlined for cornstarch; it has a more desirable phosphoric acid content but is more expensive. Wheat, rice, arrowroot, and cassava tapioca starches also have many of the same applications as cornstarch. Rice starch is particularly preferred for laundry purposes Tapioca starch is very common as a food. In addition to the starches themselves, many further reaction products are made.

These include the following products: dextrin, which is available in more than different blends and types varying from pure white to light yellow in color is used to make a great number of different pastes, gums, and adhesives. Corn syrups are a hydrolysis product of cornstarch, containing dextrose, maltose, higher saccharides, and water.

Nonfood and industrial applications are important, as in the textile, leather-tanning, adhesive, pharmaceutical, paper, and tobacco industries. Corn sugar, or dextrose, is the sugar found in the blood and is our primary energy food.

Its many food uses are dependent upon its lower rate of crystallization, lesser sweetness, and different crystal formation. Dextrose is consumed in baking and has additional uses in preserved hods, soft drinks, candy, and ice cream. It is widely employed by the medical profession for infant feeding and for prescriptions in syrup form. Industrially, it is important as a constituent of the viscose-rayon spinning bath, in leather tanning, in tobacco conditioning, and in fermentation.

Concentrated steep water is consumed in the growing of penicillin and streptomycill Chap. On this basis, kg of corn yields The refining process utilizes wet milling in a dilute sulfurous acid medium using shelled corn as the raw material,21 as shown in Fig.

The sequences are as follows:. The first operation consists of cleaning. Large hopper-bottomed wood or stainless-steel steeping vats holding kg of 20Corn Industries Research Foundation, op.

The steep water dissolves salts, soluble car hohydrates, and protein. The cleaned and softened kernels; re degerminated between two studded steel plates, one rotating and one stationary, which tC;1 r the kernels apart and extricate the corn germs without crushing them.

The corn germs are :;quid-separated from the hulls in so-called germ separators, formerly large, agitated tanb Now stationary cone-shaped hydrodones 22 Fig. This results in a cl,'aner and more accurate process at less capital imestment. The germ is subjected to oil ex! The remainder of tl1e corn kernc1 contains starch, gluten, and cellulosic fiber. It is wetground in impact fiber mills and p ' sed through hIgh-capacity stationary screens ZJ called sieve bends, depicted in Fig.

Germ-separating crn-diameter hydroclorws. Fiber-washing J 20 sieve bend. Stationary screem of a arc. These centrifugal devices intensifv tl1f' force of gravitv, require less space.

Some gluten is partially dehydrated and sold as an adhesive or alcohol-extracted to yield zein. The highly mechanic[llly ptlrified starch is dried and sold or "cooked" to heat-convert it to soluble c1 "trins and gums. Over 70 percent of the cornc;t;nch produced by wet milling is now used in the manufacture of corn sweeteners, principalh- I IFeS. Precooking the starch yields gelatinized starches.

Starch esters such as stan'h acetate and ethers made with ethylene or prop,lenc oxide enjoy considerabJe me as textili' sizes. Another product f corn rdining i. The temperature also influellCl's tht' kind d dc. The average yield of sugar from a hectare of cane is 1. A hectare of beets usually produces aLout 8H O kg of sugar. Sincl' cane requires about 18 months to produce and corn less than half that. Purification of starch through gravity accentuatt'd bv centrifugal washing in multiple hyciroci nes.

These hydroclones are much different than those of Fig. This favorable economic situation h:J. Basic caramel is made by starch modification. Week Dextrose crystallizer provided with a scraper and an eccentric coil crystallizer. Such cooling with stirring improves heat trnnsfer while maintaining uniformity in tempcrntme drop. Rotation rute is X; rpm. Watcr is passed through the coil for cooling. Kif"lj Mmllljaclflring Co. White Potato Starch. The pulp is treated with sulfur dioxide gas, in the ratio 0.

The protein-water mixture is separated from the starch. The suspension is sieved, and the pulp from the sieve'; is reground and resieved. The liquor from the second sieving is again passed through a centrifuge, suspended in water, and sent to separation devices. From this point on operation are similar to those used for the manufacture of cornstarch Fig. Two other processes are also used. In the batter process, which is similar to Martin's process, the dough formed is dispersed in water and the dispersed gluten collected on a sieve.

Using alkali in a similar process disperses the gluten sufficiently that the starch settles out on standing. At the end of the period the liquor is withdrawn, the rice washed, fresh liquor added, and steeping continued for another 36 to 48 h. The resulting softened grains are ground with a caustic solution to a specific gravity of 1.

The solids obtained include all sorts of fibrous material, starch, and gluten. These are resuspended, a small amount of formaldehyde is added to inhibit fermentation, and they are recentrifuged and washed.

A bleaching or bluing agent may be added at this point. The liquor is screened, adjusted to a specific gravity of 1. The resulting starch is dried for 2 days at 50 to 60C. This st;! In general. Separating and purifying operations are similar to those described for potato starch. This is obtained from the pith of the sago palm, and also from yams in the East Indies and Borneo.

Pearl sago starch is made by drying the starch so as to form a plastic dough, which is then forced through sieves and dried in the air. Other Starch Sources. Colbert, A. Honig, P. James, R. Johnson, J. Park Ridge, Murry, C. Panacost, H. JU1lk: Handbook of Sugars, 2cl ed.. Schalit, M. Vukov, K. Whistler, R. The development of plastics from laboratory curiosities to products tailored to industry's needs has brought new and economical materials of construction to the engineer and the designer.

Not only can plastics replace metals and other materials, but they can also be u. Plastics lend themselves to ::m exceedingly large number of applications becau. The use of a plastic material for a specific application is dependent upon its composition, its particular properties, and the design of the part.

Synthetic resins are the largest source of plastics, with cellulose derivatives ranking next. All plastic materials of construction have limitations, but, when properly selected, they can be used with the same degree of assurance as metals and alloys. His discovery stimulated the search for other plastics and resulted in an industry that has grown to become one of the nation's top ten in size. The first plastic of industrial significance was cellulose nitrate Celluloid and was discovered about the middle of the nineteenth ce ltury.

It was first used in by Hyatt who was searching for an ivory substitute. From that time on, th ' introduction of new polvmer materials was rapid. Table :]-. On the basis of derivation, they may be grouped as rwlural resins, cellulose derivatives, protein products, and synthetic resins. In generaL except where fl ted, synthetic resins formed bv condensation polymerization are thermosetting heat ctIring pr duces an infusible or insoluble product , and synthetic resins formed hy addition pnlynwrization are therrnoplastic heating softens and cooling hardens These tW l.

Addition polymerization involves a series of conversions which produce a polymer having a recurring strllctural unit identical with that of the monomer from which it is formed. Condensation polymerization yields polymers whose recurring units lack certain atoms present in the original monomer. The reaction takes place by the combination of two or more units and the elimination of a small molecule such as water, methanol, or hydrogen chloride.

Synthetic Rp. U rCJ- formaldehvdt' 2. Melamine-formaldehyde C. Polyesters 1. Silicolle resill. Ionomers j. Pol y i ides. Properties can be varied for special purposes by regulating the amount of cross-linking. Another variation in the type of fin:d product is effected by the simultaneous polyrnertzation of two or more types of monomers.

By carefully regulating the relative amounts of the monomers and reaction conditions and initiators. Common reinforcing fibers are cellulose fibers. Table Engineering plastics 1 are high-strength high-performance materials that can be substituted for many metal uses. There are a wide variety of engineering plastics available. Each one has its own special properties, and thu.

These materials are often the usual plastics but have been carefully manufactured to possess extra quality properties. Many of the common r 'sillS art' 1Il lIse as engineering plastics such as acetaL f1 uoroplastics. The common names of plastics are usually the common or even the principal trade names and often are referred to by abbreviations. Some of the international abbreviations are given in Table I::ach one has its own individual properties and characteristics that make it useful for certain applications.

Tables 7 and t8 list the selling prices and U. USES A. Cellulose acetate Chlormated poly vinyl chloride Melamine-formaldehyde resins Pol y acry loni t r ile-co- bu tad iene Polyacrylonitrile Bisphenol A polycarbonate Polyethylene Poly ethylene tercphthalate F'henol-formaldehyde resins Polyisobuty lene Poly methyl methacrylate Polyoxymethylene Polypropylene Polystyrene Pol ytetrafl uoroethylene Polyurethane Poly vinyl acetate Poly vinyl alcohol Poly vinyl butyral Poly vinyl chloride Poly vinylidene chloride Poly vinylidene fluoride Poly vinyl pyrrolidone Urea-formaldehyde resins.

This process is more widehused in Europe. Lund strl'ngth. Extreme versatility ill processing, rxcellent lwat. Extreme versatility when combined with other resins, good physical, chemical.

Impregnating resins. Laminates, adhesives, flooring, linings, propellers, surface coatings, filament-wound structures rocket ca. Colorless and odorb, low density; good heat resistance,.. Pohesters Urea and l1lela! Murk neJl. I [dt;" tL. F, rrllciidt-rl:li, Houle:, BillIg Co,t 1'f dllll! I C'llCI! Atmospheric air is purified, compressed, and prehe::lled to 54 ; in a finned heat exchanger. The products leave the converter at C and at 3: to 69 kPa absolute.

About :is percent of the methanol is converted per pass. The latter feeds the methanol column for separation of recycle methanol overhead, the bottom stream containing the formaldehyde and a few percent methanol. The catalyst is easily poisoned so stainless-steel equipment must be used to protect the catalyst from metal contamination.

In about 2. I"ia Evapc'lation of the reaction product of formaldehyde and ammonia produces hexamethylenetetrd mine. Vinyl chloride is usually prepared by the oxychlorination dehydrochlorination of ethylene.

Exposure to vinyl chloride vapors, even in very small concentrations, causes some workers to develop liver cancer. To achieve this requires extensive and expensive pollution-abatement systems. The feed mixture is ethylene, acetic acid, and oxygen, and is circulated through a fixed-bed tubular reactor.

The processes for the preparation of phthalic anhydride are controlled oxidation of a-xylene or naphthalene. Oxidation is one of the very useful chemical conversions in organic technology. The cheapest agent is air, but oxygen is sometimes employed.

For liquid-phase reactions a great many oxidizing agents are in industrial use, such as nitric :;cid, permanganates, pyrolusite, dichromates, chromic anhydride, hypochlorites, chlorates, lead peroxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Water and carbon dioxide and many other oxidized substances are the by-products of the main oxidation. When charcoal or carbon amorphous changes to carbon dioxide t These energy changes, although the basis of combustion, frequel1tly accompany controlled oxidation, as in the making of phthalic anhydride and maleic acid.

In most oxidations, even when the formation of carbon dioxide and water can be repressed, the energy change is exothermic and large. This requires particular care in the design and construction of the equipment to ensure efficient heat transfer and to prevent the controlled oxidation from becoming combustion.

The naphthalene process, with a suitable catalyst, was discovered by Gibbs and Conover. IlFor carbon, the equivalent kJjkg. The reactor has been designed to withstand explosions and the catalyst, V20 5 plus Ti0 2 on an inert carrier, serves to deter an explosioll. It is claimed that electrical requirements have been cut from to bOO MJ per rrlt'tri,' t lfl of anhydride produced ,mel tht' fllcl-oil requirements have been eliminated.

At present, however, tert-butyl alcohol is more valuable as an octane enhancer in gasoline, so the cyanohydrin process will continue to he used. ItlIllllIl1C, ';I'. I, ] CJ,,' , pp. Seu's 59 30 Many materials may be added to plastics to increase strength, thermal conductivity, resistance to heat distortion, and lower thermal expansion. Formerly asbestos was used, but due to its human carcinogenic properties, it is no longer an acceptable filler.

General Polymerization Processes Polymerization of the monomer in bulk may be carried out in the liquid or vapor state. The monomers and activator are mixed in a.

As most polymerization reactions are exotherrrtiF, provision must be made to remove the excess heat. In some cases, the polymers are soluble in their liquid monomers, causing the viscosity of the solution to increase greatly. In other cases, the polymer is not soluble in the monomer and it precipitates out after a small amount of polymerization occurs.

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